Budget Accommodation

Entrepreneurs build their business within the context of an environment which they sometimes may not be able to control. The robustness of an entrepreneurial venture is tried and tested by the vicissitudes of the environment. Within the environment are forces that may serve as great opportunities or menacing threats to the survival of the entrepreneurial venture. Entrepreneurs need to understand the environment within which they operate so as to exploit emerging opportunities and mitigate against potential threats.

This article serves to create an understanding of the forces at play and their effect on banking entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe. A brief historical overview of banking in Zimbabwe is carried out. The impact of the regulatory and economic environment on the sector is assessed. An analysis of the structure of the banking sector facilitates an appreciation of the underlying forces in the industry.

Historical Background

At independence (1980) Zimbabwe had a sophisticated banking and financial market, with commercial banks mostly foreign owned. The country had a central bank inherited from the Central Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland at the winding up of the Federation.

For the first few years of independence, the government of Zimbabwe did not interfere with the banking industry. There was neither nationalisation of foreign banks nor restrictive legislative interference on which sectors to fund or the interest rates to charge, despite the socialistic national ideology. However, the government purchased some shareholding in two banks. It acquired Nedbank’s 62% of Rhobank at a fair price when the bank withdrew from the country. The decision may have been motivated by the desire to stabilise the banking system. The bank was re-branded as Zimbank. The state did not interfere much in the operations of the bank. The State in 1981 also partnered with Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) as a 49% shareholder in a new commercial bank, Bank of Credit and Commerce Zimbabwe (BCCZ). This was taken over and converted to Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe (CBZ) when BCCI collapsed in 1991 over allegations of unethical business practices.

This should not be viewed as nationalisation but in line with state policy to prevent company closures. The shareholdings in both Zimbank and CBZ were later diluted to below 25% each.

In the first decade, no indigenous bank was licensed and there is no evidence that the government had any financial reform plan. Harvey (n.d., page 6) cites the following as evidence of lack of a coherent financial reform plan in those years:

- In 1981 the government stated that it would encourage rural banking services, but the plan was not implemented.

- In 1982 and 1983 a Money and Finance Commission was proposed but never constituted.

- By 1986 there was no mention of any financial reform agenda in the Five Year National Development Plan.

Harvey argues that the reticence of government to intervene in the financial sector could be explained by the fact that it did not want to jeopardise the interests of the white population, of which banking was an integral part. The country was vulnerable to this sector of the population as it controlled agriculture and manufacturing, which were the mainstay of the economy. The State adopted a conservative approach to indigenisation as it had learnt a lesson from other African countries, whose economies nearly collapsed due to forceful eviction of the white community without first developing a mechanism of skills transfer and capacity building into the black community. The economic cost of inappropriate intervention was deemed to be too high. Another plausible reason for the non- intervention policy was that the State, at independence, inherited a highly controlled economic policy, with tight exchange control mechanisms, from its predecessor. Since control of foreign currency affected control of credit, the government by default, had a strong control of the sector for both economic and political purposes; hence it did not need to interfere.

Financial Reforms

However, after 1987 the government, at the behest of multilateral lenders, embarked on an Economic and Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP). As part of this programme the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) started advocating financial reforms through liberalisation and deregulation. It contended that the oligopoly in banking and lack of competition, deprived the sector of choice and quality in service, innovation and efficiency. Consequently, as early as 1994 the RBZ Annual Report indicates the desire for greater competition and efficiency in the banking sector, leading to banking reforms and new legislation that would:

- allow for the conduct of prudential supervision of banks along international best practice

- allow for both off-and on-site bank inspections to increase RBZ’s Banking Supervision function and

- enhance competition, innovation and improve service to the public from banks.

Subsequently the Registrar of Banks in the Ministry of Finance, in liaison with the RBZ, started issuing licences to new players as the financial sector opened up. From the mid-1990s up to December 2003, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity in the financial sector as indigenous owned banks were set up. The graph below depicts the trend in the numbers of financial institutions by category, operating since 1994. The trend shows an initial increase in merchant banks and discount houses, followed by decline. The increase in commercial banks was initially slow, gathering momentum around 1999. The decline in merchant banks and discount houses was due to their conversion, mostly into commercial banks.

Source: RBZ Reports

Different entrepreneurs used varied methods to penetrate the financial services sector. Some started advisory services and then upgraded into merchant banks, while others started stockbroking firms, which were elevated into discount houses.

From the beginning of the liberalisation of the financial services up to about 1997 there was a notable absence of locally owned commercial banks. Some of the reasons for this were:

- Conservative licensing policy by the Registrar of Financial Institutions since it was risky to licence indigenous owned commercial banks without an enabling legislature and banking supervision experience.

- Banking entrepreneurs opted for non-banking financial institutions as these were less costly in terms of both initial capital requirements and working capital. For example a merchant bank would require less staff, would not need banking halls, and would have no need to deal in costly small retail deposits, which would reduce overheads and reduce the time to register profits. There was thus a rapid increase in non-banking financial institutions at this time, e.g. by 1995 five of the ten merchant banks had commenced within the previous two years. This became an entry route of choice into commercial banking for some, e.g. Kingdom Bank, NMB Bank and Trust Bank.

It was expected that some foreign banks would also enter the market after the financial reforms but this did not occur, probably due to the restriction of having a minimum 30% local shareholding. The stringent foreign currency controls could also have played a part, as well as the cautious approach adopted by the licensing authorities. Existing foreign banks were not required to shed part of their shareholding although Barclay’s Bank did, through listing on the local stock exchange.

Harvey argues that financial liberalisation assumes that removing direction on lending presupposes that banks would automatically be able to lend on commercial grounds. But he contends that banks may not have this capacity as they are affected by the borrowers’ inability to service loans due to foreign exchange or price control restrictions. Similarly, having positive real interest rates would normally increase bank deposits and increase financial intermediation but this logic falsely assumes that banks will always lend more efficiently. He further argues that licensing new banks does not imply increased competition as it assumes that the new banks will be able to attract competent management and that legislation and bank supervision will be adequate to prevent fraud and thus prevent bank collapse and the resultant financial crisis. Sadly his concerns do not seem to have been addressed within the Zimbabwean financial sector reform, to the detriment of the national economy.

The Operating Environment

Any entrepreneurial activity is constrained or aided by its operating environment. This section analyses the prevailing environment in Zimbabwe that could have an effect on the banking sector.

Politico-legislative

The political environment in the 1990s was stable but turned volatile after 1998, mainly due to the following factors:

- an unbudgeted pay out to war veterans after they mounted an assault on the State in November 1997. This exerted a heavy strain on the economy, resulting in a run on the dollar. Resultantly the Zimbabwean dollar depreciated by 75% as the market foresaw the consequences of the government’s decision. That day has been recognised as the beginning of severe decline of the country’s economy and has been dubbed “Black Friday”. This depreciation became a catalyst for further inflation. It was followed a month later by violent food riots.

- a poorly planned Agrarian Land Reform launched in 1998, where white commercial farmers were ostensibly evicted and replaced by blacks without due regard to land rights or compensation systems. This resulted in a significant reduction in the productivity of the country, which is mostly dependent on agriculture. The way the land redistribution was handled angered the international community, that alleges it is racially and politically motivated. International donors withdrew support for the programme.

- an ill- advised military incursion, named Operation Sovereign Legitimacy, to defend the Democratic Republic of Congo in 1998, saw the country incur massive costs with no apparent benefit to itself and

- elections which the international community alleged were rigged in 2000,2003 and 2008.

These factors led to international isolation, significantly reducing foreign currency and foreign direct investment flow into the country. Investor confidence was severely eroded. Agriculture and tourism, which traditionally, are huge foreign currency earners crumbled.

For the first post independence decade the Banking Act (1965) was the main legislative framework. Since this was enacted when most commercial banks where foreign owned, there were no directions on prudential lending, insider loans, proportion of shareholder funds that could be lent to one borrower, definition of risk assets, and no provision for bank inspection.

The Banking Act (24:01), which came into effect in September 1999, was the culmination of the RBZ’s desire to liberalise and deregulate the financial services. This Act regulates commercial banks, merchant banks, and discount houses. Entry barriers were removed leading to increased competition. The deregulation also allowed banks some latitude to operate in non-core services. It appears that this latitude was not well delimited and hence presented opportunities for risk taking entrepreneurs. The RBZ advocated this deregulation as a way to de-segment the financial sector as well as improve efficiencies. (RBZ, 2000:4.) These two factors presented opportunities to enterprising indigenous bankers to establish their own businesses in the industry. The Act was further revised and reissued as Chapter 24:20 in August 2000. The increased competition resulted in the introduction of new products and services e.g. e-banking and in-store banking. This entrepreneurial activity resulted in the “deepening and sophistication of the financial sector” (RBZ, 2000:5).

As part of the financial reforms drive, the Reserve Bank Act (22:15) was enacted in September 1999.

Its main purpose was to strengthen the supervisory role of the Bank through:

- setting prudential standards within which banks operate

- conducting both on and off-site surveillance of banks

- enforcing sanctions and where necessary placement under curatorship and

- investigating banking institutions wherever necessary.

This Act still had deficiencies as Dr Tsumba, the then RBZ governor, argued that there was need for the RBZ to be responsible for both licensing and supervision as “the ultimate sanction available to a banking supervisor is the knowledge by the banking sector that the license issued will be cancelled for flagrant violation of operating rules”. However the government seemed to have resisted this until January 2004. It can be argued that this deficiency could have given some bankers the impression that nothing would happen to their licences. Dr Tsumba, in observing the role of the RBZ in holding bank management, directors and shareholders responsible for banks viability, stated that it was neither the role nor intention of the RBZ to “micromanage banks and direct their day to day operations. “

It appears though as if the view of his successor differed significantly from this orthodox view, hence the evidence of micromanaging that has been observed in the sector since December 2003.

In November 2001 the Troubled and Insolvent Banks Policy, which had been drafted over the previous few years, became operational. One of its intended goals was that, “the policy enhances regulatory transparency, accountability and ensures that regulatory responses will be applied in a fair and consistent manner” The prevailing view on the market is that this policy when it was implemented post 2003 is definitely deficient as measured against these ideals. It is contestable how transparent the inclusion and exclusion of vulnerable banks into ZABG was.

A new governor of the RBZ was appointed in December 2003 when the economy was on a free-fall. He made significant changes to the monetary policy, which caused tremors in the banking sector. The RBZ was finally authorised to act as both the licensing and regulatory authority for financial institutions in January 2004. The regulatory environment was reviewed and significant amendments were made to the laws governing the financial sector.

The Troubled Financial Institutions Resolution Act, (2004) was enacted. As a result of the new regulatory environment, a number of financial institutions were distressed. The RBZ placed seven institutions under curatorship while one was closed and another was placed under liquidation.

In January 2005 three of the distressed banks were amalgamated on the authority of the Troubled Financial Institutions Act to form a new institution, Zimbabwe Allied Banking Group (ZABG). These banks allegedly failed to repay funds advanced to them by the RBZ. The affected institutions were Trust Bank, Royal Bank and Barbican Bank. The shareholders appealed and won the appeal against the seizure of their assets with the Supreme Court ruling that ZABG was trading in illegally acquired assets. These bankers appealed to the Minister of Finance and lost their appeal. Subsequently in late 2006 they appealed to the Courts as provided by the law. Finally as at April 2010 the RBZ finally agreed to return the “stolen assets”.

Another measure taken by the new governor was to force management changes in the financial sector, which resulted in most entrepreneurial bank founders being forced out of their own companies under varying pretexts. Some eventually fled the country under threat of arrest. Boards of Directors of banks were restructured.

Economic Environment

Economically, the country was stable up to the mid 1990s, but a downturn started around 1997-1998, mostly due to political decisions taken at that time, as already discussed. Economic policy was driven by political considerations. Consequently, there was a withdrawal of multi- national donors and the country was isolated. At the same time, a drought hit the country in the season 2001-2002, exacerbating the injurious effect of farm evictions on crop production. This reduced production had an adverse impact on banks that funded agriculture. The interruptions in commercial farming and the concomitant reduction in food production resulted in a precarious food security position. In the last twelve years the country has been forced to import maize, further straining the tenuous foreign currency resources of the country.

Another impact of the agrarian reform programme was that most farmers who had borrowed money from banks could not service the loans yet the government, which took over their businesses, refused to assume responsibility for the loans. By concurrently failing to recompense the farmers promptly and fairly, it became impractical for the farmers to service the loans. Banks were thus exposed to these bad loans.

The net result was spiralling inflation, company closures resulting in high unemployment, foreign currency shortages as international sources of funds dried up, and food shortages. The foreign currency shortages led to fuel shortages, which in turn reduced industrial production. Consequently, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been on the decline since 1997. This negative economic environment meant reduced banking activity as industrial activity declined and banking services were driven onto the parallel rather than the formal market.

As depicted in the graph below, inflation spiralled and reached a peak of 630% in January 2003. After a brief reprieve the upward trend continued rising to 1729% by February 2007. Thereafter the country entered a period of hyperinflation unheard of in a peace time period. Inflation stresses banks. Some argue that the rate of inflation rose because the devaluation of the currency had not been accompanied by a reduction in the budget deficit. Hyperinflation causes interest rates to soar while the value of collateral security falls, resulting in asset-liability mismatches. It also increases non-performing loans as more people fail to service their loans.

Effectively, by 2001 most banks had adopted a conservative lending strategy e.g. with total advances for the banking sector being only 21.7% of total industry assets compared to 31.1% in the previous year. Banks resorted to volatile non- interest income. Some began to trade in the parallel foreign currency market, at times colluding with the RBZ.

In the last half of 2003 there was a severe cash shortage. People stopped using banks as intermediaries as they were not sure they would be able to access their cash whenever they needed it. This reduced the deposit base for banks. Due to the short term maturity profile of the deposit base, banks are normally not able to invest significant portions of their funds in longer term assets and thus were highly liquid up to mid-2003. However in 2003, because of the demand by clients to have returns matching inflation, most indigenous banks resorted to speculative investments, which yielded higher returns.

These speculative activities, mostly on non-core banking activities, drove an exponential growth within the financial sector. For example one bank had its asset base grow from Z$200 billion (USD50 million) to Z$800 billion (USD200 million) within one year.

However bankers have argued that what the governor calls speculative non-core business is considered best practice in most advanced banking systems worldwide. They argue that it is not unusual for banks to take equity positions in non-banking institutions they have loaned money to safeguard their investments. Examples were given of banks like Nedbank (RSA) and J P Morgan (USA) which control vast real estate investments in their portfolios. Bankers argue convincingly that these investments are sometimes used to hedge against inflation.

The instruction by the new governor of the RBZ for banks to unwind their positions overnight, and the immediate withdrawal of an overnight accommodation support for banks by the RBZ, stimulated a crisis which led to significant asset-liability mismatches and a liquidity crunch for most banks. The prices of properties and the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange collapsed simultaneously, due to the massive selling by banks that were trying to cover their positions. The loss of value on the equities market meant loss of value of the collateral, which most banks held in lieu of the loans they had advanced.

During this period Zimbabwe remained in a debt crunch as most of its foreign debts were either un-serviced or under-serviced. The consequent worsening of the balance of payments (BOP) put pressure on the foreign exchange reserves and the overvalued currency. Total government domestic debt rose from Z$7.2 billion (1990) to Z$2.8 trillion (2004). This growth in domestic debt emanates from high budgetary deficits and decline in international funding.

Socio-cultural

Due to the volatile economy after the 1990s, the population became fairly mobile with a significant number of professionals emigrating for economic reasons. The Internet and Satellite television made the world truly a global village. Customers demanded the same level of service excellence they were exposed to globally. This made service quality a differential advantage. There was also a demand for banks to invest heavily in technological systems.

The increasing cost of doing business in a hyperinflationary environment led to high unemployment and a concomitant collapse of real income. As the Zimbabwe Independent (2005:B14) so keenly observed, a direct outcome of hyperinflationary environment is, “that currency substitution is rife, implying that the Zimbabwe dollar is relinquishing its function as a store of value, unit of account and medium of exchange” to more stable foreign currencies.

During this period an affluent indigenous segment of society emerged, which was cash rich but avoided patronising banks. The emerging parallel market for foreign currency and for cash during the cash crisis reinforced this. Effectively, this reduced the customer base for banks while more banks were coming onto the market. There was thus aggressive competition within a dwindling market.

Socio-economic costs associated with hyperinflation include: erosion of purchasing power parity, increased uncertainty in business planning and budgeting, reduced disposable income, speculative activities that divert resources from productive activities, pressure on the domestic exchange rate due to increased import demand and poor returns on savings. During this period, to augment income there was increased cross border trading as well as commodity broking by people who imported from China, Malaysia and Dubai. This effectively meant that imported substitutes for local products intensified competition, adversely affecting local industries.

As more banks entered the market, which had suffered a major brain drain for economic reasons, it stood to reason that many inexperienced bankers were thrown into the deep end. For example the founding directors of ENG Asset Management had less than five years experience in financial services and yet ENG was the fastest growing financial institution by 2003. It has been suggested that its failure in December 2003 was due to youthful zeal, greed and lack of experience. The collapse of ENG affected some financial institutions that were financially exposed to it, as well as eliciting depositor flight leading to the collapse of some indigenous banks.

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A Cost of Living Allowance (COLA) is a salary supplement paid to employees to cover differences in the cost of living, particularly as a result of an international assignment. The amount of COLA should enable an expatriate to be able to purchase the same basket of goods and services in the host location as they could in their home country. The basis for calculating a COLA is the Cost of Living Index (COLI) which indexes the costs of the same basket of goods and services in different geographic locations. COLA is a simple accurate method of measuring fluctuating salary purchasing power and ensuring parity.

Cost of Living Index

Our cost of Living Indexes measure the cost of 230 products and services across 13 different basket groups in 276 cities across the globe. The data is gathered by a team of research analysts who survey comparable items that are available internationally. A minimum of 3 prices for the same brand/size/volume of product is used to determine the average price for each item in each location. The items are priced on a quarterly basis and tend to rise and fall with inflation. The 13 different basket categories are as follows:

Alcohol & Tobacco: Alcoholic beverages and tobacco products
Alcohol at Bar
Beer
Cigarettes
Locally Produced Spirit
Whiskey
Wine

Clothing: Clothing and footwear products
Business Suits
Casual Clothing
Children’s Clothing and footwear
Coats and hats
Evening Wear
Shoe Repairs
Underwear

Communication
Home Telephone Rental and Call Charges
Internet Connection and service provider fees
Mobile / Cellular Phone Contract and Calls

Education
Crèche / Pre-School Fees
High School / College Fees
Primary School Fees
Tertiary Study Fees

Furniture & Appliances: Furniture, household equipment and household appliances
DVD Player
Fridge Freezer
Iron
Kettle, Toaster, Microwave
Light Bulbs
Television
Vacuum Cleaner
Washing Machine

Groceries: Food, non-alcoholic beverages and cleaning material
Baby Consumables
Baked Goods
Baking
Canned Foods
Cheese
Cleaning Products
Dairy
Fresh Fruits
Fresh Vegetables
Fruit Juices
Frozen
Meat
Oil & Vinegars
Pet Food
Pre-Prepared Meals
Sauces
Seafood
Snacks
Soft Drinks
Spices & Herbs

Healthcare: General Healthcare, Medical and Medical Insurance
General Practitioner Consultation rates
Hospital Private Ward Daily Rate
Non-Prescription Medicine
Private Medical Insurance / Medical Aid Contributions

Household: Housing, water, electricity, household gas, household fuels, local rates and residential taxes
House / Flat Mortgage
House / Flat Rental
Household Electricity Consumption
Household Gas / Fuel Consumption
Household Water Consumption
Local Property Rates / Taxes / Levies

Miscellaneous: Stationary, Linen and general goods and services
Domestic Help
Dry Cleaning
Linen
Office Supplies
Newspapers and Magazines
Postage Stamps

Personal Care: Personal Care products and services
Cosmetics
Haircare
Moisturiser / Sun Block
Nappies
Pain Relief Tablets
Toilet Paper
Toothpaste
Soap / Shampoo / Conditioner

Recreation and Culture
Books
Camera Film
Cinema Ticket
DVD and CD’s
Sports goods
Theatre Ticket

Restaurants, Meals Out and Hotels
Business Dinner
Dinner at Restaurant (non fast food)
Hotel Rates
Take Away Drinks & Snacks (fast Food)

Transport: Public Transport, Vehicle Costs, Vehicle Fuel, Vehicle Insurance and Vehicle Maintenance
Hire Purchase / Lease of Vehicle
Petrol / Diesel
Public Transport
Service Maintenance
Tyres
Vehicle Insurance
Vehicle Purchase

Each basket category does not count equally and are weighted in the final calculation based on expatriate spending patterns.

In order to calculate an accurate cost of living index for a specific individual the basket items that are not relevant to the individual should be excluded from the calculation. For example if education and housing is provided by the employer these basket categories would be excluded from the cost of living index calculation. This increases the accuracy of the cost of living index and makes it possible for each individual to have their own customized cost of living index based on their specific arrangements rather than using an overall “generic” index which is likely to contains costs that are not relevant to the individual.

The formula for calculating the specific cost of living index for an international assignment is as follows:

Cost of Living Index = Customized Cost of Living Index for Host City / Customized Cost of Living Index for Home City

When moving to a higher cost of living host city, the index will be greater than 1 (positive). When moving to a lower cost of living host city the index will be less than 1 (negative). Where the index is negative it means that in real terms the cost of living in the host city is lower than the home city. This means that if the negative index where to be applied to the employee’s salary, they would actually be paid proportionately less spendable salary in the host city. It is important to note that the majority of organizations do not apply a negative cost of living index because it makes it difficult to persuade an employee to take up an assignment as they tend to see it as a reduction in salary.

Examples of Cost of Living Index Calculations using our data:

Example 1) An Australian employee moving from Perth to London where healthcare and communication will be provided by the employer

More Expensive in London:
Alcohol & Tobacco +4.77%
Clothing +21.85%
Education +31.53%
Furniture & Appliances +16.03%
Groceries +16.35%
Household +50.72%
Miscellaneous +137.47%
Personal Care +11.18%
Recreation & Culture -6.82%
Restaurants Meals Out and Hotels +34.99%
Transport +19.80%

The overall difference in cost of living moving from Perth and London is +28.06%.

In this case the cost of living index is positive and would be applied as it is.

Example 2) A British employee moving from London to Mumbai where the employer will provide housing and education

More Expensive in Mumbai:
Alcohol & Tobacco -37.53%
Clothing -9.58%
Communication -44.92%
Furniture & Appliances -19.31%
Groceries -24.03%
Healthcare -31.24%
Miscellaneous -72.43%
Personal Care -24.94%
Recreation & Culture -35.73%
Restaurants Meals Out and Hotels -33.11%
Transport is -27.99%

The overall difference in cost of living moving from London Mumbai is -30.53%.

In this case the cost of living index is negative and would not be applied.

Net Spendable Salary

Differences in cost of living only impact the portion of the salary that is spendable in the host country. Items in the home country such as retirement funding, medical insurance and other home based costs are not impacted by the cost of living in the host country.

To determine the Net Spendable Salary establish what amount / portion of the current salary (in home currency) is spent in maintaining the employee’s current standard of living / lifestyle. What will the expatriate need to spend their salary on in the host country? For example will accommodation be provided or will the employee pay rent, will healthcare be provided etc. Deduct all items that are either provided in kind or are spendable in the home country. Deduct the hypothetical amount of tax, social contributions and any other statutory deductions applicable in the home country from the Spendable Salary. What is left is the Net Spendable Salary.

Cost of Living Allowance (COLA)

The formula for calculating the cost of living allowance using the above inputs is as follows:

(Net Spendable Salary X Cost of Living Index X Hardship Index X Exchange Rate) less (Net Spendable Salary X Exchange Rate) = COLA

Examples of COLA Calculations using our data

Example 1) An Australian employee with a net spendable salary of AUD$100,000 moving from Perth to London where healthcare and communication will be provided by the employer

($100,000.00 X 1.2806 X 1 X 0.4768) less ($100,000.00 X 0.4768) = COLA of £13,379.44 (GBP)

Based on all the above factors a person would require a Cost of Living Allowance of £13,379.44 (GBP), in addition to their current salary of 100,000.00 Australian Dollar (AUD) to compensate for relocating from Perth to London. This Cost of Living Allowance compensates for the overall cost of living difference of +28.06% and the relative difference in hardship of 0%.

Example 2) A British employee with a net spendable salary of £18,000 moving from London to Mumbai where the employer will provide housing and education

Note: Because the Cost of Living Index is negative it is not applied.

(£18,000.00 X 1 X 1.3 X 67.2852) less (£18,000.00 X67.2852) = COLA of 363,340.32 Indian Rupee

Based on all the above factors a person would require a Cost of Living Allowance of 363,340.32 (INR ), in addition to their current salary of £18,000.00 British Pound (GBP ) to compensate for relocating from London to Mumbai. This Cost of Living Allowance compensates for the overall cost of living difference of [-30.53%] and the relative difference in hardship of 30%.

COLA Payment

The COLA is paid as a salary supplement (i.e. as an additional allowance) net of tax in the host country. If the COLA is a taxable allowance in the host country it should be grossed up in order that the full amount of calculated COLA is paid net of tax given that the basis of the calculation is Net Spendable Salary. The COLA is often accompanied by other allowances and benefits such as flights home, relocation / settling in allowance, and furnishing allowance.

Exchange Rate Fluctuations

Significant changes in the exchange rate can make a considerable difference in the COLA calculation. In 2008 some of the major global exchange rates changed by as much as 30-40%.

The cost of living index reflects the changes caused by inflation and exchange rates. In the short-term there may be disequilibrium between inflation and the exchange rate (the one pushes the other), however over time the cost of living index provides the most accurate view of the cost of living.

It is important to remind expatriates that when the cost of living difference is negative, and the negative value has not been applied, they have higher purchasing power in the host country than they would at home.

Where a negative cost of living index has not been applied (our recommended approach), and a change in the exchange rate indicates an upward adjustment in COLA may be required, it is recommended that the COLA should not be adjusted upward until the cost of living index becomes positive i.e. the cost of living reflects that there is a “real” increase in cost of living between home and host countries. This may mean that their would be no increase in the COLA as a result of exchange rate fluctuations for some considerable time. During this time the employee’s purchasing power decreases. But it is important to remember that until the cost of living difference becomes positive, the individual will still have a higher purchasing power than they do in their home country.

It is advisable to stipulate a currency protection rule, rather than reacting to every fluctuation in the exchange rate. For example the rule may state that COLA will be reviewed if exchange rates or local inflation move by more than +10% during a year. It is important to keep in mind that the prices of goods and services are unlikely to drop in local currency. This would only occur in a period of deflation (negative inflation). Therefore the currency protection rule would normally make provision for upward adjustments in COLA and not downward adjustments during an employee’s assignment. Downward adjustments to an existing COLA due to exchange rate fluctuations without a corresponding drop in the prices of local goods and services puts immense pressure on an employee’s host currency budget commitments and can lead to the employee experiencing financial difficulty.

Using an independent service provider provides an independent, objective basis for determining an employee’s COLA.

We recommend therefore that a COLA is calculated by applying the specific (customized) cost of living index to the net spendable salary at the beginning of the assignment and monitoring exchange rate fluctuations thereafter in addition to the annual salary review.

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When planning your European trip, check your arrival and departures dates and see if they take into account peak, off-peak and shoulder travel periods.

Peak periods are the times when majority of travelers fly in and out of countries and these periods usually coincide with school holidays, Christmas, Easter and New Year. The country you are flying into will also have peak periods unique to that country, so expect flights and accommodation to be heavily booked and tickets to be more expensive. This peak period generally covers late December to January (because of the Christmas season) and late June to the end of August (summer break). Travel during the Christmas holidays can be difficult as plane ticket prices soar and ski resorts start overcharging. Public transport is also reduced in most areas since only a few trains will leave on Christmas day. The “shoulder period” is in spring and autumn and the low or “off-peak” periods are usually in the remaining months and in the winter.

If you have only a limited time to see Europe, your best bet is to fly in and out during a shoulder period. Prices are almost at their lowest and travel conditions are great because you can avoid the crowds and the overpricing. If you have a lot of time to spare in Europe, try flying in the low season when fares are cheapest so you have more money to spread over your stay. It’s always a good idea to start checking airfares 3-4 months before you leave. Airlines are starting to discount in order to reward early bookers and there’s a lot time to wait if you think they’re too high. The cheapest ticket prices might turn up on the net or at your ticket office at anytime. And while you’re at it, make sure you’ve already reserved your accommodation 6 weeks to 2 months before you leave. It’s a good idea to reserve a hotel for your arrival and departure days. The rest can be reserved afterwards. Also, remember to check for travel dangers and updates. Your government and insurance company might draw the line if you visit a certain territory they’ve warned you about. Be informed about the dangers and uprisings in the country you are visiting and do last-minute updates to check conditions right before you leave.

For most seasoned travelers, the best time to see Europe is from April to June and September to October when the weather is still warm, the holiday crowds have left and accommodation and transport are regularly priced.

In contrast, the single worst time to visit most parts of Europe (especially the western and southern countries) is the month of August. This is when many Europeans leave and take their holidays in nearby countries as well. The cities can be deserted and as a result, accommodation prices shoot up and finding a bed can be very difficult. Buses and trains will often be packed and it can be a struggle to get a seat while you cross countries. Even most tourist shops and sites can be closed because the proprietors have gone on holiday as well! There’s little doubt that July and August are the busiest tourist months in Europe (mainly because of Americans on vacation) and it will require a lot of patience and money. Avoid these months as much as you can. If you really must travel in the high season, your best course of action is to stay away from the major cities and choose the off-track towns and villages and indulge in the local culture.

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When you go to stay in a hotel there are several different considerations. One of them, of course, is price. It’s not a concern for everyone, but most people are budget-conscious and can’t just spend whatever they want to on accommodations. With that being the case, you’ll have to determine what fits within your budget and what you can expect from a hotel in that price range. Where budget accommodations are concerned you won’t pay a lot but you won’t get a lot, either. Most of these hotels are older, and although they are clean there are anything but fancy. The linens and fixtures might be a bit worn and they won’t have the look and feel of the higher priced hotels. You don’t usually get any ‘freebies,’ either, although you might be treated to a simple breakfast and/or a newspaper included in the price.

 

Luxury hotels are a far different story from budget hotels. They cost much more, but you also get many more amenities than you would in a place where you pay considerably less. You can expect food, newspapers, free phone calls, better television channel selections, and more pampering. These hotels often have pools, spas, free room service, massages, robes and slippers, and other amenities that you wouldn’t otherwise get. You are generally given whatever you ask for, within reason, and the people there carry your bags and do everything that they can to ensure that you are happy. It’s very important to them that you have a good stay and that you return in the future.

 

A lot of people stay in middle-of-the-road hotels. These places offer much more than the budget hotels, but they don’t come close to what the luxury hotels provide. You’ll get some freebies there, but you won’t get the pampering and the do-anything-for-you attitude that you’ll get in the luxury hotels. That doesn’t seem to be required, though, because these standard hotels are still very popular. It gives people the feeling that they are staying in a nice hotel without requiring them to spend such an excessive amount of money. The fixtures in these hotels will be newer than the budget hotels, as will the linens. They will be nice places overall, but they won’t have the spas and free massages and other treatments that a lot of the luxury options provide. For travellers on a tight budget, these hotels might be too costly, as well.

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